The effect of smoking habits on hypertension risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Background: Smoking is a major modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension. This study aimed to synthesize recent evidence on the association between smoking and hypertension using a systematic review and meta-analysis approach.
This study was conducted by researchers from the Study Program of Magister Kesehatan Msyarakat, Universitas Jambi, Jambi, Indonesia, to synthesize recent evidence regarding the association between smoking and hypertension.

Method: We conducted a systematic search of PubMed, Google Scholar, and OpenAlex to identify observational studies published between 2020 and 2025. Studies reporting odds ratios (OR) or adjusted odds ratios (AOR) for the association between smoking and hypertension among adults were included. A random-effects model was used to estimate pooled effect sizes.

Results: Ten studies were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled analysis showed that smoking was significantly associated with increased risk of hypertension (pooled OR = 1.24; 95% CI 1.19–1.30). The forest plot demonstrated variability in individual study estimates, although the pooled effect indicated an overall positive association between smoking and hypertension.
Conclusion: Smoking exposure was significantly associated with an increased risk of hypertension. Smoking prevention and cessation programs should be strengthened to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease.